History of Old English
The English language has evolved over time, with its history stretching back centuries. From Old English to Modern English, the development of the language has been marked by several major milestones. Here is a timeline of the English language:
Old English: Around 450 AD, the Germanic tribe of Anglo-Saxons moved to Great Britain, bringing with them the language now known as Old English. This language was heavily influenced by Latin and Norse, and was used until approximately 1100.
Middle English: During the Middle English period, which lasted from 1100 to 1500, strong Norman French influences began to shape the English language. It was during this time that the English language developed its own rules for spelling, grammar, and syntax.
Early Modern English: From 1500 to 1776, Early Modern English was spoken across Britain. This period saw the emergence of the standard dialects that are still in use today. It was also during this time that the English language began to spread across the world.
Modern English: The Modern English period began in 1776 and continues today. This period saw the emergence of a variety of dialects, as well as the rise of English as a global language. English has become the official language of many countries, and is now spoken by millions of people around the world. The variety used to today is often referred to as Present-day English.
The Anglo-Saxons
Originally hailing from regions in modern-day Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands, the Anglo-Saxons were a Germanic people who inhabited Britain from the 5th century AD, following the collapse of Roman rule. Their history is characterised by migrations, conflicts, and the establishment of various kingdoms across the land. They arrived in several waves, with groups such as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes establishing their own territories.
The period of Anglo-Saxon rule in England is often split into several periods, including the Heptarchy, which was a time when the land was divided into seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex. These kingdoms often vied for dominance, leading to frequent conflicts and power struggles.
Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical, with kings and nobles at the top, followed by freemen (who were landowners), and then the unfree, which included serfs and slaves. Social status was largely determined by birth right and wealth. They typically lived in village communities and relied on farming for sustenance, cultivating crops like wheat, barley, and oats, as well as raising livestock such as sheep, cattle, and pigs.
The Anglo-Saxons used a legal system known as “wergild” (Old English for man payment/price). This was compensation paid as a fine for crimes in which someone was injured or killed. Wergild varied depending on the social status of the victim, with higher amounts required for the killing or injuring of a person with high social rank. This was a way to avoid further bloodshed and vendettas between families or clans, due to the various different groups settling in Britain. If the perpetrator could not pay the wergild, they might face other forms of punishment, such as exile.
Prior to the spread of Christianity, the Anglo-Saxons practised polytheistic Paganism, worshipping gods such as Woden, Thundor, and Tiw. However, in the late 6th century King Æthelberht of Kent converted to Christianity, and so began the spread of the monotheistic religion. By the 8th century, Christianity had become the dominant religion in Britain.
Along with societal structures, legal systems, and changes to religion, the Anglo-Saxons brought a new language to Britain. This became known as Old English – the ancestor of our present-day language – and shared many features with other Germanic languages such as Old High German, Old Norse, and Old Frisian.
One of the most famous Anglo-Saxon artifacts is the epic poem "Beowulf," which provides insight into their culture, beliefs, and societal structures. Other notable Old English literature includes Cædmon’s Hymn, Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People, and riddles such as the Exeter Book. The Anglo-Saxons also left behind impressive works of art, including intricate metalwork and jewellery, showcasing their craftsmanship and artistic prowess.
In 1066, the Norman Conquest brought an end to Anglo-Saxon rule in England with the victory of William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings. This event marked the beginning of a new era in English history, blending Anglo-Saxon and Norman influences to shape the nation's identity, and resulted in the gradual rise of Middle English.
The Vikings and Old Norse
The Vikings (also known as the Norse) were a seafaring people from Scandinavia who lived during the Viking Age, roughly spanning from the late 8th century to the mid-11th century. They originated from present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden and are known for their exploratory voyages in their famed longships, their raids which plundered monasteries and wealthy homes, and their settlements across northern Europe and North America.
Viking society was organised into chieftaincies or petty kingdoms, ruled by local leaders known as jarls or kings. Society was hierarchical, with a warrior elite at the top, followed by freemen, traders, craftsmen, and then slaves. Women had more rights and freedoms compared to many other societies of the time, with some even taking on roles as traders, warriors, and ship captains.
They practised Norse Paganism – worshipping notable gods such as Odin, Thor, and Freyja – until the rise of Christianity in northern Europe, when many Vikings converted.
The Vikings spoke the Germanic language of Old Norse, which is the ancestor to present-day languages such as Norwegian, Swedish, and Icelandic. Prior to adopting the Latin alphabet, Old Norse used a runic alphabet called Futhark. The language itself was moderately inflected, meaning some words would undergo changes to convey grammatical meaning. There were three grammatical genders – masculine, feminine, and neuter – as well as varying grammatical cases and conjugations for verbs based on person, number, tense, mood, and voice. Old Norse had a relatively free word order, which could vary depending on emphasis, context, and stylistic considerations.
Old Norse literature is one of the richest literary traditions in the medieval world. It includes epic poetry such as the "Poetic Edda" and the "Prose Edda," which contain myths, legends, and heroic tales of gods, heroes, and monsters. Other important literary works include the Icelandic sagas, which are prose narratives that recount the history, genealogy, and exploits of legendary figures and families.
When Vikings began settling in Britain, Old Norse came into contact with Old English. This resulted changes such as the adoption of Old Norse loanwords into Old English, for example, skaða (injure) became scaðan, which became scathe in Present-Day English. Old Norse also influenced English personal names, place names, and pronouns.
Middle English
Middle English was a period of the English language that developed after the Norman Conquest in 1066 and lasted until the late 15th century. It is characterized by a huge shift in the language, with words and grammar becoming more closely related to those of modern English. Middle English was also the period in which the Great Vowel Shift occurred, which changed the pronunciation of many long vowels. During this period, English literature flourished with the works of Geoffrey Chaucer, William Langland, and others. This period also saw the development of the printing press, which made books and other written materials widely available. Middle English is an important part of the history of the English language and continues to influence the language today.
Chester and the Anglo-Saxons
While often charactised by Roman influenced, the English city of Chester has a rich history intertwined with the Anglo-Saxons. Previously, the city had been an important Roman fortress and settlement, then known as Deva. After the Romans completely withdrew by the 5th century, the area is thought to have come under control of the Welsh as part of the medieval kingdom of Powys. Then, from the early 7th century when Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeated a Welsh army at the Battle of Chester, the city fell to Anglo-Saxon control.
During their rule, the Anglo-Saxons adopted the name Legeceaster, which was shortened to Ceaster before eventually becoming Chester. Chester itself was strategically important due to its location near the border between the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. It became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia and served as a defensive stronghold against the Welsh to the west, however it likely did not have the same level of prosperity and importance as it had during the Roman occupation of Britain, despite serving as a local centre for trade and agriculture.
The area itself would’ve followed the same social structure as the rest of Anglo-Saxon Britain; kings or rulers at the top, followed by nobles, freemen, and then slaves or serfs. In Chester, there would have been a local ruler, possibly appointed by the king of Mercia, overseeing the area. The majority of the population would have been peasants working the land, while a smaller elite class would have held positions of power and influence.
Despite brief Danish occupation, the Anglo-Saxon rule in Chester would have lasted up until the Norman conquest and spread throughout the 11th century. The Normans took Chester during Harrying of the North military campaign from winter 1069-1070.
The Anglo-Saxon influence on Chester can be seen in various aspects of its archaeology, place names, and possibly in some surviving structures or remnants from that period. However, much of the visible history of Chester today is dominated by its later medieval and Tudor-era architecture, such as the famous Chester Rows and the city walls, which were built by the Romans but extensively repaired and modified over the centuries, including during the Anglo-Saxon period.
